After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnam was one of the poorest countries and in the mid of 1980’s, the Vietnam government introduced economic and political reforms called Doi Moi to promote a socialist-oriented market economy, which generated the high performance in every sector of industry (Kraas 2012; Seo, 2012). Due to its rapid economic growth during the late 1980s to 2000s, Vietnam has quickly graduated from a low-income country and is grouped into Lower-Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) in the OECD list (Dinh HT, 2014). One of the factors behind this economic achievement is to boost the first industry but also secondary and tertiary industry, which is distinguished from other developing countries that mainly depend on low value-added primary products (Vietnam Government, 2011). Over the period, the economy of Vietnam has rapidly expanded backed by domestic demands and export-oriented manufacturing and processing industries in agriculture, apparel, textiles, and electronic devices due to its abundant and low-wage labor forces (Kim et al., 2017). However, due to its excessive development and rapid industrial structural reform, Vietnam has been suffering from deteriorated environment problems resulting from urbanization (Fan, 2018; Vietnam Government, 2011) and facing emerging threats posed by climate change (Adger et al., 2012).

The Mekong Delta region located in southwestern part of Vietnam has led enormous growth in agriculture, while being lagged behind the national average development in the socio-economic context (Garschagen, 2012; Kraas, 2012). In the region, the fifth of the Vietnamese population, about 17.6 million people resides (Ha et al., 2017 (GSVO, 2015) and the biological and natural resources are rich, which vitalizes the economies of agriculture, aquaculture, and tourism (Dang, 2018; Ha et al, 2017). The Mekong Delta’s contribution to the national economy is significant as it contributes 18% of Vietnam’s total GDP, generating around 90% of the rice exports and 73% of the country’s aquatic production (Garschagen, 2012; GSO, 2011). The large and fertile plain, which is 65% (2,600,000 hectares) of the total Mekong Delta area (4,000,000 hectares), is mainly utilized for the agriculture (Ha et al., 2018; Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013), producing the half of national rice production at around 16 million tons as the second biggest rice exporting region worldwide (Song, 2012; Eom, 2016; Kakonen, 2008; Minh, 2002). The geographically favorable condition for the crop cultivation has created the residents’ high dependency on the agriculture for their livelihoods. (Song, 2012; Ha et al., 2018; Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013).

On the other hand, there are some limitations to fully activate industrial development in other sectors but primary sector of the economy (Kraas, 2012). Therefore, the Vietnam government had tried to introduce various investment instruments to attract an inflow of Foreign Direct Investment and the region has been emerging as a preferred investment destination for many international investors (Dezan Shira & Assciates, 2020). According to the Provincial Competitiveness Index Report (2019) published by the Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the United States Agency for International Development, four cities⁴⁾ in the Mekong Delta region were ranked the top ten cities as business-friendly cities among 63 provinces and cities (Dezan Shira & Associates, 2020). It is likely that the Mekong Delta offers a favorable environment to business due to abundant labor forces, low entry costs, simple administrative procedures, and a reasonable labor policy compared to other major cities in Vietnam (GSOV, 2018). Nowadays, the Mekong Delta region has much possibility for further development, although the area’s social and economic level is relatively low compared to other major cities in Vietnam.

The main characteristics of the Mekong Delta are the geographic environment and climatic conditions along with the Mekong River. The Mekong River escapes to the South China Sea, it forms a large alluvial plain with delta topography in southern Vietnam. The region has a moderate altitude and a slow flow rate, which accumulates deposited river nutrients making it suitable for agricultural cultivation (Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013). However, rising sea levels and inundation due to climate change and ground subsidence caused by urban development are increasing the risk of flooding in the Mekong Delta. In the event of unforeseen flooding, about 75 percent of the rural population of the Mekong Delta is at risk of suffering tremendous damage (Tri, 2012). In the worse, at the end of the rainy season from October to November, there are high river flows, heavy rains, and seasonal floods, placing human beings in danger and risking physical damage to about 3,400,000 hectares of the Mekong Delta region (Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013). The most vulnerable cities in Mekong Delta are Dong Thap, Long An, Kien Giang, and Soc Trang, which are low-lying with insufficient drainage facilities and easily exposed to heavy flooding and salt intrusion (Tuan et al., 2009; Kakonen, 2008).

In particular, the flooding and inundation occur frequently in the river directly affect the agriculture in the Delta region (Minderhoud, 2019; Eom, 2016). As the river overflows during dry seasons when the flow rate is low, a variety of nutrients along with saltwater in the river are supplied to surrounding farmland resulting in fertile soil conditions (Eom, 2016; Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013). In this context, flooding has a positive effect on agricultural land in the river basin. However, as the flooding continues and soil salinity increases, it is difficult to grow crops that cannot grow in soil with more than a certain amount of salt, such as rice (Tuan et al., 2009). As a result, the local residents who are unable to maintain their production are forced to relocate their agricultural land and shelters as well (Eom, 2016). Likewise, the economic damage caused by flooding will give rise to a serious impact on the lives of the residents accompanying additional challenges in food security and stable housing (Smajgl et al., 2015; Chu et al., 2014).

In several studies conducted on the subject, researchers at the University of Wittrecht in the Netherlands predicted that as the Mekong Delta is only 0.8 meters above sea level, ground subsidence will occur within 57 years, damaging more than 12 million inhabitants in the region (Minderhoud et al., 2019; Cosslett and Cosslett, 2013). According to the study of the Asian Development Bank, sea levels in the Mekong Delta will be around about 65 cm–1 m higher in 2050, and 13–39% of the region will be submerged (ADB, 2011). It is also observed in a systematic review on 60 documents including peer-reviewed scientific articles, book chapters, reports, and planning and policy documents between published by 2000 and 2017, which highlighted flood management challenges in the lower Mekong delta (Hoang et al, 2018). As such, it is likely that climate change increases the risk of flooding, having significant impact on socio-economic status of livelihood by increasing poverty, agricultural damage, and disaster damage (Ko et al., 2019).

To tackle the climate change issue, the Vietnam government made various efforts in the following national policies, strategies and advocacies: the Socio-Economic Development Strategy and the Socio-Economic Development Plans, National Climate Change Strategy and various national strategies related to water management and climate change adaptation (Tan, 2012). According to Vietnam’s Voluntary National Review on the Implentaiton of the Sustainable Development Goals published in 2018, the government has arranged and coodinated organizational systems by establishing the National Committee on Climate Change and setting the ministries, agencies and provinces more oriented in climate change responses (MP1, 2018). Also the Vietnam government has establihsed international partnerships with other countries, resulting in various bilateral and multilateral cooperation such as Mekong River Commission (MRC), Asean Working Group on Water Resource Management (AWGWRM), Strategic Partnership Arrangement on Climate Change Adaptation and Water Management between Vietnam and Netherlands (Hoang et al., 2018). They are aimed to strengthen cooperation to address the adverse impact of climate change and increase resilience by establishing strategies, plans, commitment, and action plans on water management. In the partnerships, they explored key challenges and solutions to enhance the argument for improving the environment to flood management (Hoang et al., 2018).

After the Korean War ended in 1953, ODA grants from other countries were provided to Korea to assist the reconstruction of its devastated economy (Chun, 2010). In the 1960’s, relying on the foreign assistance and investment, Korea’s economy was gradually recovered and from the 1970’s, it had accomplished dramatic economic development depending on heavy and chemical industries such as steel, shipbuilding and automobile manufacturing (Choi, 2010). From the 1960s to the 1980s, Korea had accomplished remarkable record of economic growth, which created its roles and responsibilities as a donor country to aid developing countries.

The first office assistance implemented by Korea as a donor country was to train the governmental officials from developing countries with funds supported by USAID in 1963 (Yim, 2014). Until the mid of 1970’s, Korea implemented ODA supported from UN organizations, and the scale and types of assistance gradually had expanded by the incrementing demands of international community (Kim 2013; KOICA, 2008).

In 1987, the Ministry of Economy and Finance established the Economic Development Cooperation Fund (EDCF) and entrusted its operation of the fund to the Korea Export-Import Bank (KEXIM Bank). In 1991, Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) was established under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a dedicated grant agency to provide grants and technical assistance to developing countries (Yim, 2014). Overall, the Committee for International Development Cooperation chaired by the Prime Minister is in charge of general coordination of ODA policy and programs (Kim, 2013). Officially, the prior status of Korea as a recipient country until the early 1990s was transformed to a donor country (Yim, 2014). It means that Korea was eliminated in the lending list of World Bank and became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1996 (Go, 2011).

Due to the Asian financial crisis in 1997, Korea accepted a bailout package from the International Monetary Fund and overcame the national crisis during the very short of time (Yim, 2014). The Korean economy recovered from the deep recession and achieved rapid economic development, providing ODA to other developing countries as a member of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 2009 (The government of Republic of Korea, 2017). Korea’s accession to the OECD was the 2nd in Asia after Japan and the 24th worldwide, being the first case of being a donor country from recipient country (Go, 2011). From 2010 to 2018, the size of Korean ODA projects have increased by 106.2% to 2.4 billion dollars from 1.1 billion dollars (The government of Republic of Korea, 2017). The annual ODA growth rate of Korea has been much higher than that of other OECD countries given that Korea’s donations grew by 11.9% while the average ODA growth rate of OECD DAC was 2.4%. It is likely that as the size of Korea’s ODA has been growing, it is playing a crucial role in promoting development of developing countries as an intermediary power in international community.

Vietnam is one of major partner countries and ODA recipient countries to Korea. The proportion of ODA for Vietnam comprises 20% of the total ODA for New Southern countries (The government of Republic of Korea, 2017; Kang, 2014). According to OECD statistics (2018) on aid disbursement, the size of Korea’s ODA for Vietnam is the 3rd biggest following Japan and Germany. Among 13 areas⁵⁾, four sectors (Transport, governance, water management and healthcare, and education) were adopted as priority cooperation areas for Korean ODA in Vietnam. These priorities followed the consideration of Vietnam's demands, Vietnamese context, Korea's capacities and relative advantages, resources availability, harmonization with other donors, and the alignment between sectors (CPS, 2017).

The majority of Korea’s ODA projects in Vietnam comprise loan assistance rather than grants (Fig. 1). It is found that the rate of Korea’s tied aid is significantly higher than the average rate of the OECD DAC countries, 15% as of 2016 (Kang and Kang, 2018) Since Vietnam obtained sufficient economic status due to its rapid economic development and it became a lower-middle-income country with the economic stability required to accept the loan and incur the burden of repayment. It is likely that Vietnam is utilizing ODA according to the domestic situation and the effectiveness of ODA, to reduce its dependency on the foreign assistance unlike other developing countries which tend to prioritize grants (Yoon, 2019).

Fig. 1. 
Size of Korean ODA for Vietnam

(Source: OECD Statistics, 2020)

At the same time, that the proportion of loans outweighs grants embodies different characteristics in that Korean loans are tied aid, which limits the nationality of goods or services to be procumbent supplier (Eom, 2014; Ha, 2009). While there have been constant debates over tied aid, Korea maintains the ODA procurement condition that enables Korean companies to provide the supplies needed by loan projects. Especially, large-scale loan projects such as those involved in infrastructure development facilitate entrance of Korean companies into developing countries (The government of Republic of Korea, 2017; Ha, 2009). This trend implies that Korea’s ODA has been introduced for the exports of domestic companies as well as humanitarian support (Ha, 2009). In the context, it is likely that Korea's ODA in Vietnam stretches the meaning of assistance beyond supporting the recipient country but also it is motivated by entailing economic benefits of Korea.

In the light of the Mekong Delta's vulnerability to climate change, it is necessary to reconsider the priorities of Korea ODA in terms of climate disasters and water management, which is a pressing problem to the local population. International trend of development in the water sector has shifted from water quality in the 1970s, and sustainable environment in the 1980s, to the global water crisis and water security in the 1990s–2000s (Ryu et al., 2014). As the water crisis and climate change-induced water disasters are becoming more serious in the Delta, integrated water management has a greater importance at the local level. However, as it is studied earlier, Korea's ODA projects in the water sector focused on water treatment and water resource management, by deploying water supply and sewerage facilities, even though there is an insufficient infrastructure and services for water disaster management in the Mekong Delta (Tran, 2019). As the concomitant result from the absence and lack of integrated water management system, it led to growing demand for assistance to expand infrastructure and improve capacity building on water management (Government Ministries, 2016).

Therefore, Korea’s ODA projects needs to be revised in the way to respond to climate change in the water sector by deploying irrigation facilities and water control measures for the risk reduction of disasters. There is an increasing trend of large-scale floods that deviate from the planned frequency, and various flood measures such as flood forecasting systems and evacuation simulation scheme need to be considered in the synthetic approach (Han, 2019). Especially, Korea has a comparative advantage in integrated water management system that includes water quality, water ecology, and water disaster management (Ryu, 2014). Therefore, Korea's best practices in water management with advanced technology and accumulated experience can be incorporated into the situation of Mekong Delta. In this regard, Korea needs to allocate ODA projects to integrated water management, especially in response to climate change in the Mekong Delta. The shared solution will not only improve the quality of life of residents but also improve the sustainability of the local economy and ecological environment in the region.

Korea’s ODA with the utilization of advanced ICT would be a good practice that contributes to the rapidly growing Mekong Delta region. Along with the demands of development of regional industries - agriculture, fisheries and tourism in the Mekong Delta, the Vietnam government has emphasized attracting innovative infrastructure and technology, especially through the construction of digital infrastructure to boost economic growth and the revival of major industries (SEDS, 2011). The Vietnam’s Voluntary National Review outlines the importance of sharing experience on science and technology and technology transfer from advanced countries (MPI, 2018). In the case of Mekong Delta, the local demand for technology is so high and one of the main national goals is industrial development and economic growth through science and technology.

Since the end of the 1980s, Korea has made intensive investments in ICT infrastructure and technology under the national development strategy for informatization, and became an advanced ICT country based on its rapid economic environment, strong government policies and cultural characteristics. (Lee, 2013; Ko et al., 2010). Especially, Korea has competitiveness in ICT development through public-private cooperation, the establishment of the state of the art ICT network, and stable e-government systems (Ko and Kang, 2014). Korea has accumulated experience with economic transformation and ICT diffusion as an advanced country in in science and technology (Lee, 2013). Across many dimensions, ICT enables to induce societal benefits and stimulate economic growth as a key driver of improving efficiency and convenience in every sector of industry (Kim, 2009). In a long-term aspect, as a lever for development, Korea’s comparative advantages can be utilized to improve social inclusion and sustainability in ODA projects.

Based on Korea’s competitiveness on ICT, it is recommended to implement Korea’s ODA in an innovative approach by incorporating ICT into the economy of the Mekong Delta. For example, electronic trade commonly called e-commerce could be utilized into the agriculture market in the Mekong Delta, which is an innovative platform in the agricultural sector with ICT. By expanding the reach and connectivity of ICT, it will be possible to promote the growth of the local economy by eliminating spatio-temporal limitations to export agricultural products. It is also possible to utilize ICT technology to monitor farmlands so that it enables to manage irrigation facilities or pests and diseases in real-time through mobile phones. There are many cases of high-tech complexes with the increasing demand for agricultural management and production using advanced technology (Renaud and Kuenzer, 2012). In this way, industrial development in cities as well as rural areas could be achieved using ICT and it could strengthen farmers' ability to respond to climate change as well (Thong Anh Tran, 2019).

To promote climate-resilient and industrial development through ODA, it is also crucial to establish sustainable governance structure to underpin it. Over the past few decades, Korea has been highly vulnerable to floods due to frequent typhoons and heavy rains. With the increasing demand on addressing water-related disasters, concerted effort between government ministries and agencies was being made to improve the water disaster management system. In addition, the flood response has been strengthened by establishing an integrated flood management system in cooperation with related water management organizations and local governments (Cho et al., 2016). As a shared solution, Korea's successful experience on water disaster management system is expected to contribute to strengthening the Mekong Delta's capability to cope with floods and minimize damage (Kim et al., 2018).

In that water resources are of great importance to all the people, water governance needs to include a wide range of stakeholders and be involve active participation by the civil society and local community for the wider water use (OECD, 2001). In some cases, ODA projects had been implemented without having sufficient consultation with the local residents and it deprived them of their right to live and caused the involuntary migration of residents (Lee, 2018). In the Mekong Delta as well, voices of villagers and farmers have not been fully reflected at the planning on water management and disaster prevention (Tuan, 2009). Thus, when carrying out water-related ODA projects, governance should be reconsidered by various stakeholders in a holistic approach from the national to community level.

In addition, to ensure ODA projects sustainable, capacity building should be provided in parallel. When science and technology infrastructure is introduced, skilled personnel with adequate and sufficient knowledge of technology and system are required to operate and manage the infrastructure after the project finished. For the sustainability of a project, technical education and training programs could be implemented so that local people can manage and use the infrastructure autonomously. Regarding to capacity building, customized training programs and materials can be planned and utilized according to targets groups, levels, and subjects (Minderhoud et al., 2019). Likewise, when implementing ODA projects, governance improvement should be systemically considered at the scale of national government, intermediate units and individuals as well.